Drugs and adolescents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Drugs and adolescents - Essay Example The environment where the discussion occurs is calm, quiet and discrete enough to facilitate a fruitful and engaging interview. Drug abuse generally refers to the use of illegal drugs or misuse of prescription or over-the-counter drugs with negative consequences (Conner, Bradley, Gerhard, Terry, and Ernest, 178). Our interview however does not dwell on the aspect of drug abuse that pertains to poor dosage from medical prescription and prescriptive drugs, but instead focuses on this use of drugs for such purposes as pleasure and fun among adolescents. From the onset, the impression I get from my interviewee is that adolescents get entangled in drug abuse for varied reasons, as are their perceptions of the act. A section of adolescents considers drugs abuse safe, depending on how much you consume and how you can handle yourself during and after consumption, others do not see any harm in having a good time anywhere, anyhow and anytime, while others consider drug abuse injurious to one’s wellbeing and long-term health. Some of the most commonly abused drugs amongst adolescents are valium, cocaine, crystal meth, glue, vapors, heroin, marijuana, tobacco, ether, steroids and alcohol. Students who abuse these drugs often obtain them from friends, fellow students who abuse and /or peddle the drugs or from the streets. Drug abuse among the youth and adolescents is common in un-parented parties and raves, with rates of consumption highest in the evenings and the morning after to lift off the hangovers (Conner, Bradley, Gerhard, Terry, and Ernest, 180). Some adolescents try drugs out of sheer curiosity. â€Å"These are the ones who have for instance, heard stories of fabulous experiences that are often associated with drug abuse from friends and acquaintances and so they crave to get a feel of it,† he adds. Others are not so much influenced by curiosity but by their peers who urge them to take a sip which after all will not kill. Eventually, the initiates are

Contract Laws In China and America Essay Example for Free

Contract Laws In China and America Essay I.Concepts and Features of Contract and Contract Law I.Concepts A.Concept and Features of Contract 1. Concept of Contract According to the provision of Article 2 of the Contract Law of Peoples Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as Contract Law), contract is the agreement in which natural persons, legal persons or other organizations with equal status declare a common intention to establish, alter and terminate civil rights and obligations. Contract was once divided into agreement and contract. Agreement refers to the civil legal act established by both parties consensus with regard to opposite intentions, such as sales agreement. Contract refers to the civil legal act established by two or above three parties’ consensus with regard to collateral intentions, such as partnership contract. However, such division can no longer be seen in our current laws and the two are collectively referred to as contract. Contract has its broad and narrow meanings. In the broad sense, contract refers to all agreements generating rights and obligations, such as labor contract, administrative contract, civil contract, etc. Furthermore, civil contract may also be divided into creditor’s right contract, real right contract, intellectual property contract, identity contract, personality right contract, etc. In the narrow sense, contract refers to the agreement for involved parties with equal status to establish, alter and/or terminate civil rights and obligations. The contract adjusted by the contract law is generally confined to the contract of creditor’s right, real right and/or intellectual property, etc. 2. Features of Contract It can be seen from the concept of contract contract is the agreement in which natural persons, legal persons or other organizations with equal status declare a common intention to establish, alter and terminate civil rights and obligations that, contract has the following legal features: Contract is a kind of civil legal act implemented by natural persons, legal persons and/or other organizations with equal status. As the most important legal fact, civil legal act is the lawful act implemented by civil subjects, which can generate, alter or terminate civil right and obligations. Since contract is a kind of civil legal act, it is different from fact behavior in nature. Fact behavior refers to the act which does not take the declaration of intention as an essential condition and cannot generate the legal effect expected by the party involved, such as infringing act, picking up lost property, etc. In nature, contract as the civil legal act belongs to lawful act. That is to say, only under the circumstance that the declaration of intention made by the contracting parties is lawful, the contract is legally binding and protected by national laws. On the contrary, in case contracting parties make illicit declaration of intention, the agreement, even already reached, may not have the effect as a contract. As contract is a kind of civil legal act, general regulations of civil law concerning civil legal acts, such as essential condition of civil legal act, the ineffectiveness and revocation of civil act, are all applicable to contract. 3 Contract is the civil legal act in which two or more parties declare a common intention. The establishment of a contract shall have two or more parties who declare intention to each other and achieve a consensus. If such declared intentions are not consistent, no contract will be formed. Even though â€Å"one party cheats or threats or take advantage of the other party’s precarious situation to make such other party to conclude a contract which violates its real intention†, the party suffering damages is entitled to request people’s court or arbitration agency to alter or revoke the contract (Article 54.2 of the Contract Law. For similar notes cited in the following text, Contract Law will be omitted). Contract is the civil legal act with a view to establishing, altering and terminating civil rights and obligations. Establishing civil rights and obligations refers to that after parties involved conclude the contract pursuant to the law, civil rights and obligations thus emerge between; altering civil rights and obligations refers to that after parties involved conclude the contract pursuant to the law, the previous civil rights and obligations between them is changed and new civil rights and obligations are formed; terminating civil rights and obligations refers to that after parties involved conclude the contract pursuant to the law, the civil rights and obligations previously existing between them are abolished. â‘ £Contract is a civil legal relationship generated on an equal and voluntary basis by parties involved. That is to say, the subjects concluding the contract have equal legal status and no party may impose its will on the other party. â€Å"Parties of a contract have equal legal status and one party may not impose its will on the other party† (Article 3); â€Å"Parties have the right to conclude a contract voluntarily according to law and no unit or individual may intervene illegally† (Article 4). â‘ ¤Contract is the civil legal act which is legally binding. â€Å"The contract concluded according to law is legally binding upon parties involved. Parties shall perform their obligations as agreed and may not alter or terminate the contract with no consent†; â€Å"The contract concluded according to law is protected by law† (Article 8). Unless otherwise specified by law such as force majeure, the party who fails to perform the contract or whose performance of obligations does not conform to that prescribed in the contract shall assume the liabilities for breach of the contract to continue to perform the contract, adopt remedial measures or compensate losses. B. Concept and Features of Contract Law 1. Concept of Contract Law Generally speaking, the concept of contract law may be comprehended in the broad and narrow sense. In the narrow sense, given contract is the consensus of parties to the contract in nature, contract law is deemed as the law implementing the promise and agreement of parties involved. â€Å"The core of contract law is the exchange of promise†. However, the concept of contract law in the narrow sense confines the contract law to normalizing the establishment, effectiveness, performance and default liability of the contract, but excluding the non-establishment, ineffectiveness and revocation thereof. Therefore, the scope contained is not comprehensive. Just as Bayless stated, â€Å"The contract law pays attention not only to enforceable contracts and   agreements, but to adjusting the result of no contract or agreement concluded†. Therefore, the concept of contract law in the narrow sense is not suitable to apply. The concept of contract law in the broad sense proceeds from the object normalized thereby, namely the transaction relation, and defines the contract law as â€Å"the law relating to the individual transfer of property or labor service†. Most scholars in our country also consider that contract law is the law adjusting the dynamic property relations. Both contract law and real right law adjust the property relations, however, â€Å"the real right law stipulates and adjusts the static state of property relation while the contract law stipulates and adjusts the dynamic state of property relation†. Given that the contract law comprehensively adjusts the transaction relation and the establishment of a contract equals to the formation of a transaction, the performance, alteration, cancellation and termination of the contract constitute the transaction process. Consequently, it’s necessary for the contract law to stipulate the procedures to conclude the contract by parties involved, ineffectiveness and revocation of the contract, remedies upon the failure or part failure to perform the contract, various specific contracts, etc. In a word, any and all transaction relations may be adjusted by the contract law. The definition of contract law as the law adjusting the transaction relation precisely summarizes the nature and fu nctions of the contract law. 2. Features of Contract Law The contract law takes adjusting the transaction relation as its content and is applicable to various civil contracts, which determines the contract law has the features different from those in other departments of civil law (such as personality right law). These features are: Contract law has strong randomicity. Under the condition of market economy, the transaction development and property growth require the market subjects to be independent and fully express their wills. Laws shall leave broad space for the transaction activities of market subject and the intervention of government in economic activities shall be limited to the extent prescribed in the contract. The requirements put forward by the market economy against the law which endow parties with freedom to act as far as possible are thoroughly expressed in the contract. Therefore, the contract law mainly regulates the transaction through random norms rather than mandatory norms. For example, though the contract law stipulates various contracts with certain titles, it does not necessarily require parties to design the contract content precisely in accordance with the provisions prescribed in law concerning the contract with certain title, but parties may negotiate to determine the contract articles freely. As long as the articles negotiated by parties don’t violate the prohibitive regulations of laws, social public interest or public morality, the effect of the contract is acknowledged by law. Notwithstanding law stipulates the contracts with certain titles, parties are not prohibited from creating new contract forms. Although the form to establish a contract is stipulated by law, unless otherwise specially prescribed about the contract form, parties are allowed to freely choose the contract form in principle. In short, a majority of norms of the contract law may be altered by parties through agreements. The contract law also takes the freedom of contract as its basic principle; therefore, the contract law can be called as law at will in this connection. â‘ ¡Contract law emphasized the principle of consultation on an equal footing and compensation of equal value The object normalized by the contract law is transaction relation, which requires the principle of consultation on an equal footing and compensation of equal value in nature. Just as Marx indicated, the commodity is â€Å"equal by nature†. In the exchange of commodities, â€Å"only the owners of commodities with equal status stand at opposite sides, and the means of occupying others’ commodities may only be used to alienate their own commodities.† The exchange of commodities inevitably requires conforming to the law of value so as to carry out the exchange of equivalent labor, which determines that the contract law attaches more importance to the principle of consultation on an equal footing and compensation of equal value than other laws of civil law. â‘ ¢Contract law is a uniform property law. Market economy is an open economy, which demands for the integration of domestic market with international market, domestic trade and international trade. As the basic law of the market economy, the contract law should not only reflect the requirements for a uniform market with a set of uniform rules, but also integrate with international conventions. â‘ £Contract law is the law producing social wealth. Market economy is a developed credit economy, with all credit systems established on the basis of contract relations. A developed credit economy needs promise and agreement. At the same time, the more solid and universal the promise and agreement are, the more developed the credit economy is. II. Comparison of Development History and Textural Difference between Chinese and American Contract Laws A. Different Development Histories of Contract Legal Systems in China and US 1. Emergence of Contract and Contract Law Contract is the result of commodity economy, which emerges along with the emergence of commodity economy and develops along with the development of commodity economy. The contract law is accompanied with the emergence and development of the contract. In later period of clan society, due to the emergence and accumulation of private property, the exchange of products among people was becoming increasingly extensive and certain rules came into shape gradually. In the beginning, these rules were guaranteed by oaths, customs and other ways. When the oaths, customs and other ways were incapable to guarantee the implementation of trading rules, the social community emerging as the times required (organ of state power) thus formulated legal norms to supersede the foregoing. The earliest contract law of human society was developed from customs, so it’s called as customary law. However, the continuous development of society, especially the development and change of social   imbalance, made the customs different in various regions and groups, which resulted in customs here and now being inconsistent with those there and then, thus leading to transaction disputes. This determined that the written law would gradually substitute the customary law. The Code of Hammurabi promulgated by ancient Babylonian Empire in the 18th century BC is the most ancient and most well-preserved written law discovered so far in the whole world, which has 282 articles in total, among which over 120 stipulates contract norms directly. The Twelve Tables and Corpus Juris Civilis promulgated by ancient Rome have more complete legal norms about contract, acting as the most complete and typical law reflecting the production and exchange of commodities among ancient laws and playing an important role in the legislation of capitalist countries in later ages. The French Civil Code in 1804 was based on Roman law. The civil laws in European countries, except Britain, mostly originated from Roman law and formed the so-called â€Å"Roman Law System†. Along with the colonial expansion of these countries, the impact of Roman law was further extended to more regions of the world. After the Second World War, the contract law of early modern period was properly modified to become the modern contract law. 2. Development History of China’s Contract Law The ancient laws in our country had some regulations about the contract. According to the records of Rites of Zhou, there appeared written contracts such as â€Å"panshu (bamboo or wooden slips on which the texts of borrow and loan are written)†, â€Å"zhiji (sales contract)†, â€Å"fubie (borrow and loan contract)† in Zhou Dynasty. â€Å"Where any party asks for the government authority to deal with any dispute arising from debt borrow and loan, the case may only be accepted with the â€Å"panshu† previously co ncluded present†. â€Å"Where any dispute arises from a borrow and loan contract, the official in charge of trying such dispute should make a judgment according to the articles specified in fubie†. â€Å"Where any dispute arises from a sales contract, the official in charge of trying such dispute should make an award according to the articles specified in zhiji†. All these written contracts were main basis for government authorities to judge right and wrong and determine the debt liabilities. In the following dynasties of Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing, laws had several regulations about contract and contract system. However, in ancient times, our country was always with the agricultural economy which was self-sufficient and self-supporting, and the commodity economy was not developed. As a result, the norms of contract law centering on trading rules was also not developed, with no specialized civil code. Even in the collection of various laws such as Tang Code and Great Qing Legal Code, articles pertaining to contract and contract system are also rarely seen. Since the founding of the Peoples Republic of China, the contract law of our country has achieved significant development. In the initial stage of new China, the Financial and Economic Committee of the Government Administration Council under Central People’s Government promulgated the Interim Measures for Organs, State-owned Enterprises and Cooperative societies to Conclude Contracts or Agreements on September 27, 1950, and the Trade Department formulated the Decision Pertaining to Earnestly Concluding Contracts and Strictly Implementing Contracts as well as the norms relating to various specific contracts such as sales contract and contract labor agreement of capital construction in the same year, all of which ascertain the legal norms of contract system and contract in the new China. Needless to say, due to the impact of wrong course and wrong trend of thought, the legal nihilism was rampant and the contract system was once cancelled in late 50s. Especially in the period of the â€Å"Great Cultural Revolution†, all the contract systems, relevant laws and regulations were discarded. In the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party, the wrong policy of â€Å"taking the class struggle as the outline† was abandoned, the focus of work of the Party and the nation was shifted to developing economy, and the strategic decision of reform and opening up to the outside world was made in the session. All of these opened up a promising prospect for the development of contract legislation . The Economic Contract Law, Economic Contract Law Involving Foreign Interest and Technology Contract Law were successively approved by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on December 13, 1981, March 21, 1985 and June 23, 1987. It is especially worth mentioning that the General Principles of the Civil Law approved in the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People’s Congress explicitly regulates the system of civil rights and the system of civil liabilities, playing a very important role in perfecting the system of contract laws in our country. Through more than a decade’s legislation, our country has formed the legal system of contract laws which is guided by the General Principles of the Civil Law, backboned with Economic Contract Law, Economic Contract Law Involving Foreign Interest and Technology Contract Law, and based on the contract norms in specialized laws such as Maritime Law, Civil Aviation Law and Copyright Law and a set of administ rative laws and regulations normalizing contracts. All these laws have greatly promoted the economic development and the establishment and development of socialist market economy in our country. However, along with the establishment and development of socialist market economy, this legal system gradually presented new defects. In order to adapt to the requirements of economic construction and development, it’s necessary to proceed from the actual situations of our country, summarize the experience of ten years’ contract legislation and borrow general international practices to formulate a uniform and relatively complete contract law. On October 1993, the Commission of Legislative Affairs of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress embarked on drafting the contract law on the basis of the legislation program approved in the Eighth Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress. According to the advice from all sources, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress further modified the draft for many times to form the Contract Law of People’s Republic of China (Draft) and submitted it to the Second Session of the Ninth National People’s Congress for deliberation. Through serious and earnest deliberation by people’s representatives, this important law was finally approved on March 15, 1999, which is a glorious page in the legislation history of the Republic, marking that the legislation of our country’s socialist market economy is ushering a new phase. 3. Development History of American Contract Law As a whole, the American laws are developed on the basis of inheriting British laws. Although American laws are influenced by British laws at different levels in different fields, the contract rules formed in the British common law and equity law have a significant impact on American contract law. Therefore, when investigating the historical evolution of American contract law, it’s necessary to review the early development history of British contract law. a. Lawsuit of Promise in Early Britain In the medieval period, British law had not formed the concept of contract. The earliest to emerge was the so-called lawsuit of promise, namely, when the promisor violated his/her promise, the promisee might file a lawsuit with the court to force the promisor to implement the promise. The principle pursued by common court when trying such lawsuit was: only making a promise cannot generate a right of action; under normal conditions, promise doesn’t have the effect of compulsory ex ecution, exceptional situations excluded. In contrast to the practice of common court as mentioned above, other courts showed more active attitude towards accepting the lawsuit of promise. First of all, ecclesiastical court regarded the promise with oath as an irreversible one according to canon law and rendered the implementation. Secondly, in the court of equity, the Chancellor decided that since one party suffered loss because of the other party’ failure to perform his/her promise, such party shall obtain the compensation. However, till the 16th century AD, common court won the battle with the court of equity and ecclesiastical court striving for jurisdiction. In this process, the jurisdiction of common court was increasingly enlarged and the common law became the main part of British law. The opportunity for the contract law to develop through the judgments of ecclesiastical court and court of equity was always limited. From the 15th to the 16th century, along with the development of the relations of commodity production within the feudal society, to develop a kind of general basis for enforceable promise within the previous lawsuit procedures of common law was the urgent task to be resolved which was confronted by common court. At the beginning, common court just confirmed more exceptional situations under which the promise may be executed mandatorily. However, this didn’t change the basic principle that promise doesn’t have the effect of compulsory execution under normal conditions. Since the second half of the 12th century, common court started to confirm the enforceable effect of sealed covenant, which was a kind of written promise with a seal on. Some people considered, if common court could loosen its requirements about the form of this written document, such document may also be mandatorily executed even with no seal on. The existence of such covenant might become the general basis of the compulsory execution of promise, while till the 14th century, this possibility disappeared. Common court considered, the seal not only proved that one party had already made a promise, but also indicated that the promisor had seriously expressed that he/she would perform the promise for the promisee. Therefore, a covenant which was not sealed couldn’t be compulsorily executed. At the end of the 12th century, common court started to confirm the debt of a borrow and loan relation as the cause of action: In case one person borrowed an   amount of money from another person, the borrower should pay back the money to the lender. If not, the lender might file a lawsuit with the court to force the borrower to pay back money. Later on, common court further expanded the scope of lawsuit of debt repayment: Once a person granted a kind of material interest to another person, such person might lodge a lawsuit of debt r epayment against the latter one, no matter the interest provided was a valuable thing or personal service. However, the existence of such debt also didn’t become the general basis of the compulsory execution of promise for this debt was only confined to the interest which was already granted to others. If a promisee just accepted a promise from the promisor while obtained no actual interest from the promisor, he still couldn’t lodge a lawsuit of debt repayment. In the beginning of the 15th century, common court developed such a principle in its judgment: If someone made a promise of undertaking some kind of obligation to another one, and the promisee suffered damages in the process of the promisor’s performance of the obligation, the promisee might lodge a lawsuit to require the promisor to compensate. This is called the Action of Assumpsit for Misfeasance, whose basis was the theory of law of torts then already approved. In this kind of lawsuit, if the promisor didn’t perform the obligation it undertook, the promisee couldn’t obtain the remedy. In the second half of the 15th century, the judges of common court realized that, in order to win the battle for jurisdiction with other courts, the scope of lawsuit of commitment must be expanded. New legal precedent rule in this period was: If the promisor changed his status due to his dependence on the promise and the non-performance of the promisor made the promisee suffer damages, the promisee might also obtain the remedy. Till the 16th century, the previous scope of lawsuit of commitment was newly expanded, namely, when two persons made promises to each other and the promise of one party constituted the transaction object promised by the other person, even if no party of the two performed his obligation, the promise to be carried out shall have the effect of compulsory execution. The reason to adopt such rule was that, once the promise was made, the promisee has an expectation for the implementation of the promise, which should be protected, even if the promisee didnt perform the corresponding obligation, nor suffered â€Å"damages†. Generally speaking, the 17th and the 18th centuries were the period during which British contract law slowly developed. b. Evolution of American Contract Law in Modern Society The American historian Henry Maine said in 1861 that, â€Å"till now, the movement of this developing society has always been a movement from identity to contract.† This sentence indicates the profound revolution undergone by western society from the feudal times of middle ages to the times of â€Å"laissez-faire capitalism†: In the feudal society, human relation was determined by their identity; in the period of â€Å"laissez-faire capitalism†, human relation was determined by the agreement reached between them. The whole 19th c entury is regarded as the century of contract by western historians. The United States, just independent from the colonial domination of the Great Britain, entered in such a century soon after its establishment. In this period, main systems of British and American contract laws were both confirmed. With regard to the main body, American contract law remained consistent with British contract law. In this period, the consistency of American contract law with that of western countries was: The contract concluded by parties involved was generally considered as having the effect of compulsory execution. Once confirmed, such effect shall become absolute, and may not be changed by state will. In the second half of the 19th century, as the laissez-faire economy developed toward an extreme orientation, to safeguard individuals right to freely conclude contracts had become the primary goal of laws. In the eyes of Americans at that time, â€Å"in nature, justice is to safeguard lawful contracts†. The freedom of contract in the 19th century gave a full display of personal â€Å"independent will† and made private economy taking the â€Å"struggle for existence† as the motive power obtain rapid development with no government restraint and intervention. However, in late 19th century and early 20th century, the defects caused by this unlimited freedom of contract had fully appeared. In this period, contract laws of western countries underwent a new round of modification. The result was, the previous social movement â€Å"from identity to contract† started to turn to the social movement â€Å"from contract to identity†. In the US, since this century, especially since the Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 30’s, personal freedom of contract has received more and more restrictions. Today, the â€Å"identity† is playing an important role in determining the relation of rights and obligations among people for the second time: Workers are protected by â€Å"workers compensation law† due to their identity, and the article of employment contract preventing the employer from undertaking the compensation liability for industrial accidents is no longer legally binding. Similarly, the lessee of rental agreement, the insurer of insurance contract and the demanders of various contracts of public service are all protected by certain laws due to their special identities. It can be seen from the aforementioned change that, in modern American contract law, to provide special legal protection for the vulnerable party of a transaction has already become a consistent policy. Another feature displayed by American contract law in the process of its modern development and evolution is that, the impact of traditional British common law and systems and principles of other laws is decreasing, which is fully reflected from the fact that the Uniform Commercial Code abandoned and modified the traditional system of British contract law. B. Textual Difference and its Reasons between Chinese and American Contract Law Systems Given the development history of contract and the difference between Chinese and American political systems, there are following features when comparing Chinese contract law with American contract law: First, the contract law in our country is a uniform contract law applicable to all regions of China, whether in capital Beijing or western provinces. Second, this contract law is drafted with a round axis structure. Basic principles  are firstly stipulated, and then some specific contracts, such as sales contract, lease contract, etc. In this way, the basic principles are regarded as the axis, and many specific contracts are radiated to satisfy different transaction requirements. For example, the transport contract has the problem which cannot be covered by basic principles. This problem can be resolved by combining the axis and the excircle. American political system is different from Chinese political system, and the development history of American contract law is also different. In America, it’s impossible for the legislative body to approve a law with the two features as mentioned above. America has no uniform contract law, nor state contract law. The international contract laws, such as the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and New York Arbitration Treaty are commonly used in all used in the whole United States. However, with regard to the contract among American individuals, no law is promulgated by the federation. Consequently, there is no federal legislation with a round axis structure in America. Basically, each state has its own contract law and is responsible for developing basic principles of such law. The contract law of one state is not only applicable to the court of the state, but also binding on the federal court sometimes. In other words, as long as the state contract law exists, the federal court shall apply it. Of course, when 50 different contract laws are adjusting the same legal fact, the court will be confronted with a problem, namely, how to achieve the consistency of application of law? It’s also necessary to notice that American contract law is developed by the court rather than the legislative organ. You must be familiar with the concept of common law, which was formed in Britain and then introduced to America. The contract concept of the common law is formed th rough a long time. Their judges make the judgment and give opinions on the judgment. Now, in this connection, the greatest exception is the UCC. American UCC is a uniform law. In America, every state has its own laws, but these laws cannot cover all transactions. Some are involved with transaction of several properties, such as the transaction and lease of products and some are related to bank business, security trading, e-commerce, etc. However, the construction contract and real estate contract are adjusted by commercial law. Since different state laws may result in different court judgments, if the Congress can approve a law with the round axis structure, these problems will be soon resolved, because doing that can get all transactions under the adjustment of one law. C. Summary The development histories of Chinese and American contract law systems are different. Chinese culture has a long history and the contract law system was born very early. On the contrary, the US is a new country breaking away from the colonization. Although American economy is developing rapidly, its legal systems are mainly inherited from the Britain; especially the American contract law is significantly influenced by the contract rules formed in Britain common law and equity law. In short, China has a uniform contract law applicable to the whole nation, while America has no uniform contract code other than international contract laws. In addition, the difference of Chinese and American political systems leads to a great difference in the textural structures of Chinese and American contract law   systems: Chinese contract law system is based on basic principles which guides various specific contract law systems so as to form a complete set, while America has neither guidance of basic principles in the contract law nor uniform contract law applicable to the whole nation. All in all, the development history and political system of a country influence its legal system. III. Conclusion The economic globalization and political polarization are two trends of the world development. Since China has joined the WTO, how to coordinate our laws is the central issue in the field of law. Nowadays, the world has ushered in the era of knowledge economy and the advancement of science and technology is crucial to the economic development. However, the development of economy as well as the development, transfer and application of technology will inevitably require reforming the traditional contract law system. Some countries have already been reforming the current contract law systems quietly. The birth of China’s new Contract Law is confronted with the era of knowledge economy rather than that of planned economy or the transitional period from planned economy to market economy. The development of science and technology in the era of knowledge economy is so vigorous that it’s probable that difficulties in application will soon emerge after the implementation of new contract law, or even some regulations are already outdated. This situation may be considered as normal because law is the superstructure, which is always behind the economic development. Therefore, any law has to be continuously reformed and perfected. Bibliography 1. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com 2. Wilmot et al, 2009, Contract Law, Third Edition, Oxford University Press 3. Ewan McKendrick, Contract Law Text, Cases and Materials (2005) Oxford University Press 4. P.S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (1979) Clarendon Press 5. Randy E. Barnett, Contracts (2003) Aspen Publishers 6. Scott Fruehwald, Reciprocal Altruism as the Basis for Contract, 47 University of Louisville Law Review 489 (2009).

The Comparison and Contrast of I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud & The Prese

‘I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud’ and ‘The Preservation of Flowers’: two notable poems, two very different styles of writing. This essay will look at their contrasts and similarities, from relevant formal aspects, to the deeper meanings hidden between the lines. We will look at both writers use of: rhyme scheme, sound patterning, word choice, figurative language and punctuation. The essay will also touch a little on the backgrounds of the writers: themselves, and their inspiration, with the intention of gaining a greater understanding of both texts. The structure and form of both poems is evidently dissimilar. Wordsworth’s poem follows a clear rhyme scheme: ABABCC; and contains four stanzas of six lines each. In each stanza, the first line rhymes with the third, the second with the fourth and the stanza concludes with a rhyming couplet. Bird’s sixteen line- narrative verse does not follow any formal rhyme scheme. She describes full rhyme as being â€Å"too strident†E1 for her personal taste. Choosing instead: to use consonance and near rhymes. Despite this seemingly unconventional style with which the poem is written, it does follow an iambic pentameter, with every line containing five stressed syllables, except line 13 which contains six. ‘Cer-tain cus-to-mers, he slips an ex-tra rose’13. This is a very clever play on words, using the term ‘extra rose’ to mirror the extra syllable in the line. This patently demonstrates Bird’s astute understanding of structure and form. She explains – â€Å"There's a poetry joke in there too - each line has five stresses, but the 'extra rose' line has six stresses. An extra rose, an extra stress.†E2. This again presents another parallel to Wordsworth’s lyric, where the meter is not u... ... he has a point. Contrary to this statement however, there remains the reality: that without dissection and close analysis, the true meanings encoded within these two texts, might remain perpetually esoteric. Bibliography .T Furniss & M Bath. 1996. Reading Poetry: an introduction. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. .Preface to Lyrical Ballads, in Wordsworth (1968) Lyrical ballads, pp. 241-72, 246. ‘Organic sensibility’ refers to the responsiveness of the senses. See ‘The Tables Turned’, in Wordsworth (1968) The Lyrical Ballads, pp. 105-6. .Internet 1 http://www.enotes.com/william-wordsworth/q-and-a/what-elements-nature-daffodils-poem-144087 .Internet 2 http://www.wordsworth.org.uk/poetry/index.asp?pageid=101 .Internet 3 http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poem/2337.html .Internet4 http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/rom.html

Air Pollution from World War Ii Production

Air pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Air pollution from World War II production Smog over Santiago, Chile Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. [1] Contents[hide] * 1 Pollutants * 2 Sources * 2. 1 Emission factors * 3 Indoor air quality (IAQ) * 4 Health effects * 4. 1 Effects on cystic fibrosis * 4. 2 Effects on COPD * 4. Effects on children * 4. 4 Heal th effects in relatively â€Å"clean† areas * 5 Reduction efforts * 5. 1 Control devices * 6 Legal regulations * 7 Cities * 8 Carbon dioxide emissions * 9 Atmospheric dispersion * 10 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants * 11 See also * 12 References * 13 External links| [edit] Pollutants Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made. [2] Pollutants can be classified as either pri mary or secondary.Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone  Ã¢â‚¬â€ one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: * Sulfur oxides (SOx) – especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. 2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. * Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants. * Carbon monoxide – is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas.It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of car bon monoxide. * Carbon dioxide (CO2) – a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere. * Volatile organic compounds – VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are lso significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. * Particulate matter – Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matt er (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas.In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere.Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer. * Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease. [4][5] * Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. * Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. * Ammonia (NH3) – emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. * Odors  Ã¢â‚¬â€ such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes * Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon. Secondary pollutants include: Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word â€Å"smog† is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs. Minor air pollutants include: * A la rge number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. * A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. [edit] Sources Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants n the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel * â€Å"Stationary Sources† include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices * â€Å"Mobile Sources† include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc. * Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. * Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol spra ys and other solvents * Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air.Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19. 5% by displacement * Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry Natural sources * Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation. * Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle. * Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium.It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, aft er cigarette smoking. * Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. * Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates. [edit] Emission factors Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant.These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e. g. , kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air p ollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources. 6] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency. [7][8][9][10][11] [edit] Indoor air quality (IAQ) Main article: Indoor air quality A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry.Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. [12] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights.Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures.Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different typ es of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)[dead link], these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates.Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these ai rborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. edit] Health effects The World Health Organization states that 2. 4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1. 5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution. [13] â€Å"Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . . â€Å"[14] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. 15] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. [citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. [citation needed] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. [citation needed] The US EPA estimates that a pro posed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer espiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States. [citation needed] The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. [16] Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc. , U. S. A. , killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. [citation need ed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured. [17] The health effects caused by air pollutants may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions.These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. citation needed] A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that mo re than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year. 18] Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. [19][20] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. [edit] Effects on cystic fibrosis Main article: Cystic fibrosisA study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near and around particulate matter air pollution had a n increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function. [21] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency. clarification needed] During the time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function. 22] [edit] Effects on COPD Main article: Chronic obstructive pu lmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some forms of asthma. [23] A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59.Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences. [24] It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards b ecome more apparent.Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. [25] [edit] Effects on children Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the â€Å"pea-soup† smog. 26] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans we re living in areas that did not meet at least one of the â€Å"criteria pollutants† laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. [27] Those pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. [edit] Health effects in relatively â€Å"clean† areas Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be substantial and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people can potentially breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2. 5 and ozone concentrations will produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010. 28] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidi ty) effects. [edit] Reduction efforts There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles). [edit] Control devices The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere. * Particulate control * Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones) * Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream. * Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust). * * Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology.The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants. * Scrubbers * Baffle spray scrubber * Cyclonic spray scrubber * Ejector venturi scrubber * Mechanically aided scrubber * Spray tower * Wet scrubber * NOx control * Low NOx burners Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) * Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) * NOx scrubbers * Exhaust gas recirculation * Catalytic converter (also for VOC control) * VOC abatement * Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon * Flares * Thermal oxidizers * Catalytic oxidizers * Biofilters * Absorption (scrubbing) * Cryogenic condensers * Vapor recovery systems * Acid Ga s/SO2 control * Wet scrubbers * Dry scrubbers * Flue gas desulfurization * Mercury control * Sorbent Injection Technology * Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO) K-Fuel * Dioxin and furan control * Miscellaneous associated equipment * Source capturing systems * Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) [edit] Legal regulations Smog in Cairo In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U. S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels.The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants. [edit] Cities Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution. [edit] Carbon dioxide emissionsMost Polluted World Cities by PM[29]| Particulate matter, ?g/m? (2004)| City| 169| Cairo, Egypt| 150| Delhi, India| 128| Kolkata, India (Calcutta)| 125| Tianjin, China| 123| Chongqing, China| 109| Kanpur, India| 109| Lucknow, India| 104| Jakarta, Indonesia| 101| Shenyang, China| Total CO2 emissions Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Countries with the highest CO2 emissions| Country| Carbon dioxide emissions per year (106 Tons) (2006)| Percentage of global total| China| 6,103| 21. 5%| United States| 5,752| 20. 2%| Russia| 1,564| 5. 5%| India| 1,510| 5. %| Japan| 1293| 4. 6%| Germany| 805| 2. 8%| United Kingdom| 568| 2. 0%| Canada| 544| 1. 9%| South Korea| 475| 1. 7%| Italy| 474| 1. 7%| Per capita CO2 emissions[30] Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions| Country| Carbon dioxide emissions per year (Tons per person) (2006)| | Qatar| 56. 2| | United Arab Emirates| 32. 8| | Kuwait| 31. 2| | Bahrain| 28. 8| | Trinidad and Tobago| 25. 3| | Luxembourg| 24. 5| | Netherlands Antilles| 22. 8| | Aruba| 22. 3| | United States| 19| | Australia| 18. | | [edit] Atmospheric dispersion Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models for predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are: * Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources. * Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling * Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms * Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smogVisualization of a buoyant Gaus sian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of atmospheric turbulence). [31][32] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U. S. Department of Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were activ e in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. roup in Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

Recommended procedures for improvement Essay

As systems turn out to be more programmed and mechanized, those in charge of information system have a tendency to consider that more power will construct their processes better organized. In pulling manufacturing and design en route for computerization, the inclination is to provide as much power as probable to the mechanism and leave the lingering job tasks at hand. This automation viewpoint reduces the information and perceptive capacities of workers and pushes them to dislike the technology. Premises in the field of information system management are significant whether one’s orientation is in the direction of research or practice (Tapscott, 3). The responsibility of an organization is to help out in withdrawing the complication of the world and explaining and predicting proceedings. Given the information that the purpose of information system management management is to lessen the convolution of the empirical world by means of technology can benefit from sound improvement. While the complexity of the information system plan will vary based on the size of the district, it has to include a mission statement and rational, quantifiable goals and objectives that can be attained, in most cases, with obtainable resources. The Alachua’s budget also has to reflect the financial obligation to major technology initiatives included in the plan. Additionally, the planning process must include proceedings that allow decision makers to gauge the benefits of investments in information system and abandon or alter failed strategies for more triumphant ones. Methods of making a Web site secure from hackers – It is not that software has turned out to be less protected, and it’s not almost certainly because of potential attackers having increased in number. The reason that hackers are more common is likely because many people do not know how to protect their Web sites. To make a website free from hackers, simply: (1) know your enemy, (2) create ‘strong’ passwords, (3) use good software, (4) update recurrently, (5) use a hardware server-side firewall and (6) facilitate WPA or WEP encryption on wireless network connections. Digital Signature – Digital signatures are just like written signatures – these are used to provide verification of the related input, typically called a ‘message’ – (may be anything) a message sent in a more complicated cryptographic protocol or from an electronic mail to a contract. In cryptography, a digital signature or is a kind of asymmetric cryptography used to reproduce the security properties of a signature in digital – than in a written form. Digital signatures usually give two algorithms – one for signing that involves a user’s secret (private key), and one for validating signatures that involves user’s public key and the output of the signature method is known as the digital signature. â€Å"Terms and Conditions† or â€Å"Conditions of Use† -Websites and its related services are administered by the Terms and Conditions of Use, and the constant access to websites and its services is put through the user’s agreement to be bound by the Terms and Conditions of Use, as they may alter occasionally. Terms and Conditions of Use is a provision placed on a website notifying users regarding how the website deals with a user’s rights and responsibilities. Some websites characterize their Terms and Conditions of Use allowing users to routinely assess its services offered. If a user does not agree to Terms and Conditions of Use, a user may not use the website or its services. Plans of Alachua County in information system must state who is responsible for implementing and updating the technology plan. The Alachua County District’s technology plan must includes information on individual needs, equitable resource allocation, cost-effective acquisitions, technology funding, infrastructure and networking issues, technology-related professional development, support needs, and information management and delivery. On the other hand, the district’s does not make use of this best practice for the reason that the plan is not complete, is not based on a valid needs assessment, and is not evaluated and updated in a scheduled manner. The constituency should guarantee that the goals listed in the plan are detailed, quantifiable, manageable, rational, and time-bounded. The county also should ensure that the plan is monitored and updated based on valid data related to the district’s technology needs, skills, usage, and fluency levels among district employees. Strategies in the county’s strategic plan relate to technology and are considered the goals for the technology plan. In the district technology plan, the objectives are ambiguous (e. g. : guarantee, renovate, generate, etc.). Few of the objectives are assessable and are not based on detailed standards, making it complicated to document whether the objective was acquired. Additionally, it is imperative to note down that all decision-making in information system management is derived from some embedded premise. For the reason that the consequences by means of vague assumption information system management are better for all – assumptions that give understanding may perhaps have even greater importance to all organizations (Tenkasi, 27). If one relies barely on the capability to forecast events devoid of understanding them, there is a greater prospective for making underprivileged, or at least unproductive decisions. The recommendations given are good examples of research that has hardened models of managing information systems in local areas and even in worldwide perspective. Yet there is still a need for more investigations to be able to accomplish a more constructive course of action in business information technology management. Information technology systems and management necessitate of a solid abstract establishment to direct both practice and research. Even though many of the recommendations being proposed by scholars and scientists in this field may possibly be compelling prescriptions for those who are on the lookout for something further than unsystematic information management, unless information management turns out to be strongly stranded in theories of organization. Works Cited: Tapscott, D. (1998) Growing Up Digital:The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw Hill. Tenkasi, RV (1995) Technology transfer as collaborative learning. NY: Free Press Wesier, P. J. (2003). The Internet, Innovation, and Intellectual Property Policy. 103 Colum. L. Rev 534.

House to reject ration Essays

House to reject ration Essays House to reject ration Essay House to reject ration Essay Essay Topic: On Liberty Lord Simon held that ot was open to the House to reject ration (iii) and, indeed, the decision does so. Since Lord Tucker did not decide that there is a substantive offence pf corrupting public morals, it seems clear that the ratio must be taken to be (ii). It is therefore uncertain whether an agreement to corrupt public moral is a statutory conspiracy; but judges of first instance may consider themselves bound by the decision of the Court of Criminal Appeal to hold that it is. Shaw was followed by Knuller where, Lord Diplock dissenting, the House held that an agreement to publish advertisements to facilitate the commission of homosexual acts between adult males in private was a conspiracy to corrupt public morals, although such conduct is no longer a crime. Lord Reid maintained his view that Shaw was wrongly decided but held that should nevertheless be followed in the interests of certainty in the law. Given the existence of the offence, he thought there was sufficient evidence of its commission here. there is a materialdifference between merely exempting certain conduct from criminal penalties and making it lawful in the full sense I read (the Sexual Offences Act 1967) as saying that, even though it may be corrupting, if people choose to corrupt themselves in this way that is their affair and the law will not interfere. But no licence is given to others to encourage the practice. In Shaw, Lord Simonds used language which suggested that the House was asserting the right to expand the scope of criminal law. In the sphere of criminal law I entertain no doubt that there remains in the courtd of law a residual power to enforce the supreme and fundamental purpose of the law, to conserve not only the safety and order but also the moral welfare of the State, and that it is their duty to guard against attacks which may be the more insidious because they are novel and unprepared for. In Knuller however, the House was emphatic that there is no residual prower to create new offences. That is a task for Parliament. What the Courts can and should do is to recongnize the applicability of established offences to new circumstances to which they are relevant. Moreover, a finding that conduct is liable to corrupt public morals is one not lightly to be reached. It is not enough that is is liable to lead morally astray. Lord Simon of Glaisdale went so far as to say that The words corrupt public morals suggest conduct which a jury might find to be destructive of the very fabric of society. 2. ) Conspiracy to outrage public decency A majority of the House in Knuller (Lords Reich and Diplock dissenting) held that there is a common law offence of outraging public decency and, consequently, it is an offence to conspire to outrage public dencency. The particular offences previously recognised -keeping a disorderly house, mounting an indecent exhibition and indecent exposure were partucular applications of general rule. It is not an anser to show that outragiously indecent matter is nonly on the inside pages of a book or magazine which is sold in public. But outrage like corrupt is a very strong word. Outraging public decency goes considerably beyond offending the susceptibilities of, or even shocking, reasonable people The offeence is concerned with recognised minimum standards of decency, which are likely to vary from time to time Notwithstanding that public in the offence is used in a locative sense, public decency must be viewed as a whole; and the jury should be invited, where appropriate, to remember that they live in a plural sociaty, with a tradition of tolerance towards minorities, and that this atmosphere of tolerance is itself part of public decency. Lords Simon and Kildbrandon (Lord Morris dissenting) thought that the jury had not been adequately directed in accordance with these principles and, accordingly the convicion must be quashed. Major Problem: No defence Def of indecency Now wider III. Evaluation of the status quo 1 Mill, On Liberty, cited in Richard Stone, Textbook on Civil Liberties, p. 194 2 Hart criticizing Devlin in Social Solidarity and the Enforcment of Morality in Essays in Jurisprudence and Philosophy, 1983, cited by Helen Fenwick, Civil Liberties, 2nd ed. 3 Lord Devlin, The Enforcment of Morals, 1965, cited in Helen Fenwick, Civil Liberties, 2nd ed.

Roosevelt was bold Essays

Roosevelt was bold Essays Roosevelt was bold Essay Roosevelt was bold Essay March 4th 1933 brought the 32nd president of the USA (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) to power. The new president was said to be bold but not bold enough. His role in the New Deal is opinionated by James T Patterson in 1989 (Source A). The source shows and highlights all of Roosevelts good points and expresses his care for America. By managing to stabilise Germany and bring her out of the depression, he gained confidence in the American society. Looking at the letter from an American citizen to Roosevelt (Source B) you can clearly see the effect Roosevelt had on America with his many Deals. Roosevelts original priorities were; Relief for the old, sick an unemployed, a reduction in unemployment numbers to a bare minimum, and to avoid the great depression again (relief, recovery and reform). Some believe that although Roosevelt had many ideas, he was not bold enough to fully succeed in them. Roosevelt began his political career with the Emergency Banking Act, which helped bring America out of the depression. Roosevelt had realised that he had to restore faith in the capitalist business system. To help America to recover, he needed people to start investing in industry once again. But before he could achieve this, banks had to be seen stable again. On March 6th, the president ordered a four-day bank holiday in which all banks would close. He then managed to get the Emergency Banking Act passed by congress on Sunday 12th March. Roosevelt followed up his actions by his first fire-side chats (which are mentioned once again in source A). Roosevelt made a very dramatic effect in this fire-side chat. He restored confidence in the American people. Slowly but surely, people began to return money to banks. Roosevelt had given the American society hope and faith. Source I is a speech made by the president on 6th Jan 1941. His confidence and strong personality gave Roosevelt votes. After the Emergency Banking Act, the first 100 days began. This period of time is believed to be a unique period in American history. It was a time when the president and his team made a number of new laws that were all passed by congress, Roosevelts first focal point was restoring and protecting the environment. The Civilian Conservation Corps (shown in Source D), did just this. It was set up to supply work for unemployed 18-25 year old men on conservation schemes. The men were provided with food and shelter along with a wage of $30 per month ($25 of which was sent home). Over 9years, over 2million young men benefited from the work. However, the scheme received much criticism from critics and Trade Union Leaders. In the main, Roosevelt succeeded in his early Presidential years in making America a country of higher standards. Source H was made and financed by big American companies. The Big companies in fact opposed the new deal but used its success to exploit themselves. The Big Companies were not the only opposition of the New Deal. Conservatives backed up the opinion of businessmen that the New Deal interfered with their freedom to manage their businesses the way they wanted. The rich citizens of America were charged extra taxes, much to their disgust. The press disliked Roosevelt being a socialist and a communist. Socialists and communists even criticised the New Deal for not helping the poor and underprivileged enough. With all these enemies of the New Deal it is not surprising the complete opposite view Source G represents to Source C. Roosevelts main priorities of the New Deal involved reducing the numbers of unemployment levels in America. This was not succeeded and in fact the amount of unemployed reached a staggering 24.9% at the end of 1933. In his first year of power, unemployment did not suffer any change for the better. Although the numbers were reduced (Source E) over the next four years, 1938 saw a sudden increase in unemployment. It seems that the success of reducing unemployment had come to an end, along with Roosevelt when he unfortunately died in 1945. There are many different opinions on the success of the New Deal and the boldness of Roosevelt. My opinion is that Roosevelt was bold enough to make it a total success. Although he did not manage to completely solve the problems of America and the depression. He gave millions hope and the will to carry on. Roosevelts boldness will always remain a matter of opinion.

Apolinario Mabini, Philippines First Prime Minister

Apolinario Mabini, Philippines' First Prime Minister Apolinario Mabini (July 23, 1864–May 13, 1903) was the first prime minister of the Philippines. Known for his powerful intellect, political savvy, and eloquence, Mabini was called the brains and conscience of the revolution. Before his untimely death in 1903, Mabinis work and thoughts on the government shaped the Philippines fight for independence over the next century.   Fast Facts: Apolinario Mabini Known For:  First prime minister of Philipines; the brains of the revolutionAlso Known As:  Apolinario Mabini y MarananBorn:  July 23, 1864 in Talaga, Tanauwan, BatangasParents: Inocencio Mabini and Dionisia MarananDied:  May 13, 1903Education: Colegio de San Juan de Letran, University of Santo TomasPublished Works:  El Simil de Alejandro, Programa Constitucional de la Republica Filipina, La Revolucià ³n FilipinaAwards and Honors:  Mabinis face has been on the Philippine 10-peso coin and bill, Museo ni Apolinario Mabini, the Gawad Mabini is awarded to Filipinos for outstanding foreign serviceNotable Quote: Man, whether or not he wishes, will work and strive for those rights with which Nature has endowed him, because these rights are the only ones which can satisfy the demands of his own being. Early Life Apolinario Mabini y Maranan was born the second of eight children around 43 miles south of Manila on July 23, 1864. His parents were very poor: His father Inocencio Mabini was a peasant farmer and his mother Dionisia Maranan supplemented their farm income as a vendor at the local market. As a child, Apolinario was remarkably intelligent and studious. Despite his familys poverty, he studied at a school in Tanawan under the tutelage of Simplicio Avelino, working as a houseboy and tailors assistant to earn his room and board. He then transferred to a school run by the famed educator Fray Valerio Malabanan. In 1881, at the age of 17, Mabini won a partial scholarship to Manilas Colegio de San Juan de Letran. Once again he worked throughout his schooling, this time by teaching younger students Latin. Continued Education Apolinario earned his Bachelors degree and official recognition as a Professor of Latin in 1887. He went on to study law at the University of Santo Tomas. From there, Mabini entered the legal profession in order to defend poor people. He had himself faced discrimination in school from fellow students and professors, who picked on him for his shabby clothing before they realized how brilliant he was. It took Mabini six years to complete his law degree since he worked long hours as a law clerk and a court transcriptionist in addition to his studies. He ultimately earned his law degree in 1894 at the age of 30. Political Activities While at school, Mabini supported the Reform Movement. This conservative group was mainly made up of middle- and upper-class Filipinos calling for changes to Spanish colonial rule, rather than outright Philippine independence. Intellectual, author, and physician Josà © Rizal was also active in this movement.   In September 1894, Mabini helped establish the reformist Cuerpo de Comprimisarios- the Body of Compromisers- which sought to negotiate better treatment from Spanish officials. Pro-independence activists, mostly from the lower classes, joined the more radical Katipunan Movement instead. Established by Andrà ©s Bonifacio, the Katipunan movement advocated armed revolution against Spain. Legal Work and Illness In 1895, Mabini was admitted to the lawyers bar and worked as a newly minted lawyer in the Adriano law offices in Manila while he also served as the secretary of the Cuerpo de Comprimisarios. However, early in 1896, Apolinario Mabini contracted polio, which left his legs paralyzed. Ironically, this disability saved his life that autumn. The colonial police arrested Mabini in October of 1896 for his work with the reform movement. He was still under house arrest at the San Juan de Dios Hospital on December 30 of that year, when the colonial government summarily executed Josà © Rizal, and its believed that Mabinis polio likely kept him from the same fate. The Spanish-American War Between his medical condition and his imprisonment, Apolinario Mabini was not able to participate in the opening days of the Philippine Revolution. Nevertheless, his experiences and the execution of Rizal radicalized Mabini and he turned his keen intellect to the issues of revolution and independence.   In April 1898, he penned a manifesto on the Spanish-American War, presciently warning other Philippine revolutionary leaders that Spain would likely cede the Philippines to the United States if it lost the war. He urged them to continue to fight for independence. This paper brought him to the attention of General Emilio Aguinaldo, who had ordered the execution of Andrà ©s Bonifacio the previous year and had been driven into exile in Hong Kong by the Spanish. The Philippine Revolution The Americans hoped to use Aguinaldo against the Spanish in the Philippines, so they brought him back from his exile on May 19, 1898. Once ashore, Aguinaldo ordered his men to bring the author of the war manifesto to him, and they had to carry the disabled Mabini over the mountains on a stretcher to Cavite. Mabini reached Aguinaldos camp on June 12, 1898, and soon became one of the generals primary advisers. That same day, Aguinaldo declared the Philippines independence, with himself as the dictator. Establishing the New Government On July 23, 1898, Mabini was able to talk Aguinaldo out of ruling the Philippines as an autocrat. He convinced the new president to establish a revolutionary government with an assembly rather than a dictatorship. In fact, Apolinario Mabinis power of persuasion over Aguinaldo was so strong that his detractors called him the Dark Chamber of the President, while his admirers named him the Sublime Paralytic. Because his personal life and morality were difficult to attack, Mabinis enemies in the new government resorted to a whispering campaign to slander him. Jealous of his immense power, they started a rumor that his paralysis was due to syphilis, rather than polio- despite the fact that syphilis does not cause paraplegia. Creating Institutional Foundations Even as these rumors spread, Mabini continued to work toward fashioning a better country. He wrote most of Aguinaldos presidential decrees. He also molded policy on the organization of the provinces, the judicial system, and the police, as well as property registration and military regulations. Aguinaldo appointed him to the Cabinet as Secretary of Foreign Affairs and President of the Council of Secretaries. In these roles, Mabini exercised significant influence over the drafting of the first constitution for the Philippine Republic. Trying to Avert War Mabini continued moving up the ranks in the new government with his appointment as both the prime minister and foreign minister on January 2, 1899, right when the Philippines was on the brink of yet another war. On March 6 of that year, Mabini began negotiations with the United States over the Philippines fate. Now that the U.S. had defeated Spain, both the U.S. and the Philippines were already engaged in hostilities, but not in a declared war. Mabini sought to negotiate autonomy for the Philippines and a ceasefire from foreign troops, but the U.S. refused the armistice.  In frustration, Mabini threw his support behind the war effort and on May 7 he resigned from Aguinaldos government, with Aguinaldo declaring war less than a month later on June 2. At War Again As the declared war began, the revolutionary government at Cavite had to flee. Once again Mabini was carried in a hammock, this time to the north, 119 miles to Nueva Ecija. On December 10, 1899, he was captured there by Americans and made a prisoner of war in Manila until the following September.   Upon his release on January 5, 1901, Mabini published a scathing newspaper article titled El Simil de Alejandro, or The Resemblance of Alejandro, which stated: Man, whether or not he wishes, will work and strive for those rights with which Nature has endowed him, because these rights are the only ones which can satisfy the demands of his own being. To tell a man to be quiet when a necessity not fulfilled is shaking all the fibers of his being is tantamount to asking a hungry man to be filled while taking the food which he needs. The Americans immediately re-arrested him and sent him into exile in Guam when he refused to swear fealty to the United States. During his long exile, Apolinario Mabini wrote La Revolucion Filipina,  a memoir. Worn down and sickly and fearing that he would die in exile, Mabini finally agreed to take the oath of allegiance to the United States. Death On February 26, 1903, Mabini returned to the Philippines where American officials offered him a plush government position as a reward for agreeing to take the fealty oath, but Mabini refused, releasing the following statement: After two long years I am returning, so to speak, completely disoriented and, what is worse, almost overcome by disease and sufferings. Nevertheless, I hope, after some time of rest and study, still to be of some use, unless I have returned to the Islands for the sole purpose of dying. Sadly, his words were prophetic. Mabini continued to speak and write in support of Philippine independence over the next several months. He fell ill with cholera, which was rampant in the country after years of war, and died on May 13, 1903, at only 38 years old. Legacy Like fellow Philippine revolutionaries Josà © Rizal and Andrà ©s Bonifacio, Mabini did not live to see his 40th birthday. Yet in his short career, he had an outsize role in shaping the revolutionary government and the future of the Philippines. The Museo ni Apolinario Mabini in Tanauan, Philippines exhibits the life and deeds of Mabini. Mabinis face has been on the Philippine 10-peso coin and bill. The Gawad Mabini is an honor given to Filipinos for distinguished foreign service. Sources â€Å"Apolinario Mabini, by Leon Ma. Guerrero.†Ã‚  Presidential Museum and Library.Joaquin, Nick. â€Å"Mabini the Mystery. Presidential Museum and Library.Yoder, Dr. Robert L. Mabini: Wounded Hero.

How and why does ethnic identity affect the beauty cross-culturally Research Paper

How and why does ethnic identity affect the beauty cross-culturally - Research Paper Example Often, it is the financial imperatives of mass consumerism that gains the upper hand. As a consequence, ethno-cultural idea of beauty is in a process of losing its prominence. This essay will further substantiate this claim, namely, that ethnic identity mediated notions of beauty is challenged and weakened in contemporary America. To begin with, let us take the case of the United States which has evolved as a melting pot of cultures, races and ethnicities. As a result, American society has developed the aesthetics that is based on inclusiveness as opposed to exclusiveness. While this inclusiveness is a sign of racial equality in one sense, it has less noble connotations, too. In other words, the assimilation of African Americans into mainstream culture is as much a reflection of social progress as it is a measure of commercial opportunity. â€Å"As minority spending power and social interactions of different racial groups in America have increased over time, advertisers have increas ingly been concerned with reaching minority ethnic groups through visual inclusion. With minority purchasing power increasing, this contingency could no longer be ignored by marketers. However, many companies were initially leery of offending the White majority that was their consumer base. In a 1953 study, only 0.6% of ads contained African Americans. By 1980, that frequency had increased to approximately 5.7%, indicating that the country was becoming more comfortable with the use of Blacks in advertisements.† 1 One of the key features of ethnic identity is skin tone. It is also a key factor in racial classification. Skin tone is not merely a statistical or academic detail in practical life. For an individual, his or her skin tone has implications in all realms of life – be it social, official or political. Skin tone is also identified as a specific variable at the root of racially related issues. Hence, while universality of beauty is a laudable idea, the flip side of it is discouraging. For example, researchers have correlated skin tone with â€Å"feelings of self worth, attractiveness, self control, satisfaction, and with quality of life.† 2 The theory of ‘colorism’ is of salience here, which states that people of lighter-skin tone (across ethnicities) are given privilege over dark-skinned members of the same community. The interesting finding here is the applicability of this concept across and between ethnic groups. For example, â€Å"African American's tend to feel more favorable towards Black models with a lighter skin tone. This phenomenon is not exclusive to African Americans because colorism is concerned with actual skin tone, as opposed to racial or ethnic identity. Research done by Shyon Baumann (2008) has shown that people within our culture, regardless of race, have a set of ideals about how people should ideally look, including judgments regarding skin color. Lightness and darkness of skin tone have specific me anings attached to them and we subconsciously relate those meanings to those we encounter.† 3 The statistical veracity of the theory of colorism is a setback to ethnically identified notions of beauty. It is a serious dent to the preservation of authenticity and nativity in an atmosphere saturated with uniformity and conformity. There are qualifications to the theory of colorism though for people with strong ethnic identification feel more affinity towards a model which resembles their own features. Likewise, black consumers generally respond